Public transport (also public transportation, public transit, or mass transit) is a shared passenger Crew members , as well as the driver or pilot of the vehicle, are usually not considered to be passengers. For example, a flight attendant on an airline would not be considered a "passenger" while on duty, but an employee riding in a company car being driven by another person would be considered a passenger, even if the car was being transportation Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline, and space. The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and operations service which are available for use by the general public, as distinct from modes such as Taxicab A taxicab, also taxi or cab, is a type of vehicle for hire, with a driver, for a single passenger, or small group of passengers, typically for a non-shared ride. A taxicab conveys passengers between locations of their choice. In modes of public transport, the pick-up and drop-off locations are determined by the service provider, not by the, car pooling which are not shared by strangers without private arrangement.

Public transport modes include buses Bus services play a major role in the provision of public transport. These services can take many forms, varying in distance covered, types of vehicle used, and can operate with fixed or flexible routes and schedules. Services may be operated by public or private companies, and be provided using bus fleets of various sizes, trolleybuses A trolleybus is an electric bus that draws its electricity from overhead wires (generally suspended from roadside posts) using spring-loaded trolley poles. Two wires and poles are required to complete the electrical circuit, unlike a tram or streetcar, which normally uses the track as part of the electrical path and thus needs only one wire and, trams A tram, tramcar , streetcar or trolley car (American English) is a railborne vehicle which - at least in parts of its route - runs on tracks in streets. It may also run between cities and/or towns (interurbans, Tram-train), and/or partially grade separated even in the cities (light rail or light rapid transit). Trams are usually lighter and and trains Rail transport is the means of conveyance of passengers and goods by way of wheeled vehicles running on rail tracks. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles merely run on a prepared surface, rail vehicles are also directionally guided by the tracks they run on. Track usually consists of steel rails installed on sleepers/ties and ballast, on, 'rapid transit A rapid transit, metro, subway, underground, or elevated railway system is an electric passenger railway in an urban area with high capacity and frequency, and which is grade separated from other traffic. Rapid transit systems are typically either in underground tunnels or elevated above street level. Outside urban centres, rapid transit lines' (metro/subways/undergrounds etc) and, ferries A ferry is a form of transportation, usually a boat, but sometimes a ship, used to carry (or ferry) primarily passengers, and sometimes vehicles and cargo as well, across a body of water. Most ferries operate on regular, frequent, return services. A passenger ferry with many stops, such as in Venice, is sometimes called a water bus or water taxi. Intercity InterCity is the classification applied to certain long-distance passenger train services in Europe. Such trains (in contrast to regional, local, or commuter trains) generally call at major stations only public transport is dominated by airlines An airline provides air transport services for passengers or freight, generally with a recognized operating certificate or license. Airlines lease or own their aircraft with which to supply these services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for mutual benefit, coaches, and intercity rail Inter-city rail services are express train public transport services which cover longer distances than commuter or regional trains. High-speed rail High-speed rail is a type of passenger rail transport that operates significantly faster than the normal speed of rail traffic. Specific definitions include 245 km/h (152 mph) for upgraded track and 295 km/h (183 mph) or faster for new track by the European Union. In Japan Shinkansen lines run at speeds in excess of 260 km/h (160 mph) and are networks are being developed in a many parts of the world.

Most public transport Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline, and space. The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and operations runs to a scheduled timetable with the most frequent services running to a headway Headway is a measurement of the distance between vehicles in a transit system. The precise definition varies depending on the application, but it is most commonly measured as the distance from the tip of one vehicle to the tip of the next one behind it, expressed as the time it will take for the trailing vehicle to cover that distance. A ". Share taxi A share taxi is a mode of transport that falls between private transport and conventional bus transport, often with a fixed or semi-fixed route, but with the added convenience of stopping anywhere to pick up or drop off passengers and not having fixed time schedules. The vehicles used range from standard four-seater cars up to minibuses offers on-demand services in many parts of the world and some services will wait until the vehicle is full before it starts. Paratransit Paratransit, or Dial-a-Ride, is an alternative mode of flexible passenger transportation that does not follow fixed routes or schedules. Typically mini-buses are used to provide paratransit service, but also share taxis and jitneys are important providers is sometimes used in areas of low-demand and for people who need a door-to-door service.^[1]

Urban public transport may be provided by one or more private transport operators or by a transit authority A transit district or transit authority is a special-purpose district organized as either a corporation chartered by statute, or a government agency, created for the purpose of providing public transportation within a specific region. Public transport services are usually funded by fares A fare is the fee paid by a passenger allowing him or her to make use of a public transport system: rail, bus, taxi, etc. In the case of air transport, the term airfare is often used charged to each passenger. Services are normally regulated and possibly subsidized A subsidy is a form of financial assistance paid to a business or economic sector. Most subsidies are made by the government to producers or distributors in an industry to prevent the decline of that industry (e.g., as a result of continuous unprofitable operations) or an increase in the prices of its products or simply to encourage it to hire from local or national tax To tax is to impose a financial charge or other levy upon a taxpayer (an individual or legal entity) by a state or the functional equivalent of a state such that failure to pay is punishable by law revenue. Fully-subsidised, zero-fare Free public transport, also often called free public transit and sometimes zero-fare public transport, is a single or network of transport services funded in full by means other than collecting a full fare from passengers. It may be funded by national, regional or local government through taxation or by commercial sponsorship by businesses. The services operate in some towns and cities.

For historical and economic reasons, there are differences internationally regarding use and extent of public transport. While countries in Old World The Old World consists of those parts of Earth known to Europeans[note], Asians and Africans in the 15th century. It is used in the context of, and contrast with, the "New World" tend to have extensive and frequent systems serving their old and dense cities, most cities of the New World The New World is one of the names used for the Western Hemisphere, specifically the Americas. When the term originated in the late 15th century, the Americas were new to the Europeans[note], who previously thought of the world as consisting only of Europe, Asia, and Africa . The term "New World" should not be confused with "modern have more sprawl and much less comprehensive public transport.

Contents 1 History 2 Mode 2.1 Airline 2.2 Bus and coach 2.3 Trains 2.3.1 Commuter, intercity, and high-speed rail 2.3.2 Trams and light rail 2.3.3 Metro/Underground/Rapid transit 2.4 Personal rapid transit 2.5 Ferry 3 Operation 3.1 Infrastructure 3.2 Interchanges 3.3 Schedules 3.3.1 Peak and base period 3.4 Financing 3.4.1 Fare and ticketing 3.4.2 Subsidies 3.5 Safety and security 4 Impact 4.1 Environmental 4.2 Going Green 4.3 CO2 and Energy Impact 4.4 Area 4.5 Social 4.6 Economic 5 Regulations 5.1 Food and drink 5.2 Smoking 5.3 Noise 5.4 Banned items 5.5 Other regulations 5.6 Sleeping 6 See also 7 References 7.1 Notes 7.2 Bibliography 8 External links

History

Early trolley car in Newton, Massachusetts Newton is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts bordered to the east by Boston. According to the 2000 census, the population of Newton was 83,829, making it the tenth largest city in the state.

Conveyances for public hire are as old as the first ferries A ferry is a form of transportation, usually a boat, but sometimes a ship, used to carry (or ferry) primarily passengers, and sometimes vehicles and cargo as well, across a body of water. Most ferries operate on regular, frequent, return services. A passenger ferry with many stops, such as in Venice, is sometimes called a water bus or water taxi, and the earliest public transport was water transport Ship transport is watercraft carrying people or goods (cargo). Sea transport has been the largest carrier of freight throughout recorded history. Although the importance of sea travel for passengers has decreased due to aviation, it is effective for short trips and pleasure cruises. Transport by water is cheaper than transport by air: on land people walked (sometimes in groups and on pilgrimages In religion and spirituality, a pilgrimage is a long journey or search of great moral significance. Sometimes, it is a journey to a shrine of importance to a person's beliefs and faith. Members of many major religions participate in pilgrimages. A person who makes such a journey is called a pilgrim, as noted in sources such as the Bible The Bible refers to collections of sacred scripture of Judaism and Christianity. There is no single version: both the individual books and their order vary. The Hebrew Bible contains 39 books, while Christian Bibles range from the 66 books of the Protestant canon to 81 books in the Ethiopian Orthodox Bible. The oldest surviving Christian Bibles and Canterbury Tales The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories written in Middle English by Geoffrey Chaucer at the end of the 14th century. The tales are told as part of a story-telling contest by a group of pilgrims as they travel together on a journey from Southwark to the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket at Canterbury Cathedral. In a long list of works,) or (at least in the Old World The Old World consists of those parts of Earth known to Europeans[note], Asians and Africans in the 15th century. It is used in the context of, and contrast with, the "New World") rode an animal Non-human animal-powered transport is a broad category of the human use of non-human working animals for the movement of people and goods^[2]. Ferries are part of Greek mythology Greek mythology is the body of myths and legends belonging to the ancient Greeks concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world, and the origins and significance of their own cult and ritual practices. They were a part of religion in ancient Greece. Modern scholars refer to the myths and study them in an attempt to throw light on the — corpses in ancient Greece were buried with a coin underneath their tongue to pay the ferryman Charon In Greek mythology, Charon or Kharon is the ferryman of Hades who carries souls of the newly deceased across the rivers Styx and Acheron that divided the world of the living from the world of the dead. A coin to pay Charon for passage, usually an obolus or danake, was sometimes placed in or on the mouth of a dead person. Some authors say that to take them to Hades Hades refers both to the ancient Greek underworld, the abode of Hades, and to the god of the underworld. Hades in Homer referred just to the god; the genitive ᾍδου, Haidou, was an elision to denote locality: "[the house/dominion] of Hades". Eventually, the nominative, too, came to designate the abode of the dead.

Some historical forms of public transport are the stagecoach A stagecoach is a type of four-wheeled closed coach for passengers and goods, strongly sprung and drawn by four horses, usually four-in-hand. Widely used before the introduction of railway transport, it made regular trips between stages or stations, which were places of rest provided for stagecoach travelers. The business of running stagecoaches, traveling a fixed route from coaching inn to coaching inn, and the horse-drawn boat A horse-drawn boat or tow-boat is a historic boat operating on a canal, pulled by a horse walking on a special road along the canal, the towpath carrying paying passengers, which was a feature of European canals Smaller transportation canals can carry barges or narrowboats, while ship canals allow seagoing ships to travel to an inland port , or from one sea or ocean to another (e.g.: Caledonian Canal, Panama Canal) from their 17th-century origins. (The canal Smaller transportation canals can carry barges or narrowboats, while ship canals allow seagoing ships to travel to an inland port , or from one sea or ocean to another (e.g.: Caledonian Canal, Panama Canal) itself is a form of infrastructure dating back to antiquity — it was used at least for freight transportation in ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization of eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. The civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh, and it developed over the next three millennia. Its history to bypass the Aswan Aswan or Aswanl, formerly spelled Assuan, is a city in the south of Egypt, the capital of the Aswan Governorate cataract — and the Chinese also built canals for transportation as far back as the Warring States The Warring States Period , also known as the Era of Warring States, covers the period from 475 BC to the unification of China under the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC. It is nominally considered to be the second part of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, following the Spring and Autumn Period, although the Zhou Dynasty ended in 256 BC, 35 years earlier than the period^[3]. Whether or not those canals were used for for-hire public transport is unknown; the Grand Canal The Grand Canal of China , also known as the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal (simplified Chinese: 京杭大运河; traditional Chinese: 京杭大運河; pinyin: Jīng Háng Dà Yùnhé) is the longest canal or artificial river in the world. Starting at Beijing, it passes through Tianjin and the provinces of Hebei, Shandong, Jiangsu and Zhejiang to was primarily used for shipping grain.)

The omnibus A bus is a road vehicle designed to carry passengers. Buses have a capacity as high as 300 passengers. Buses are widely used public transportation, the first organized public transit system within a city, appears to have originated in Paris Paris ([paʁi] in French, pronounced /ˈpærɪs/ in English) is the capital and largest city of France. It is situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region (or Paris Region, French: Région parisienne). The city of Paris, within its administrative limits largely unchanged since 1860, has an estimated, France France (pronounced /ˈfrænts/ frantss or /ˈfrɑːnts/ frahnts; French pronunciation (help·info): [fʁɑ̃s]), officially the French Republic (French: République française, pronounced: [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a state in Western Europe with several of its overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian,, in 1662 ^[4], although the service in question failed a few months after its founder Blaise Pascal was a French mathematician, physicist, and Catholic philosopher. He was a child prodigy who was educated by his father, a Tax Collector in Rouen. Pascal's earliest work was in the natural and applied sciences where he made important contributions to the construction of mechanical calculators, the study of fluids, and clarified the died; omnibuses are next known to have appeared in Nantes Nantes is a city in western France, located on the Loire River, 50 km (31 mi) from the Atlantic coast. The city is the 6th largest in France, while its metropolitan area ranks 8th with over 800,000 inhabitants, France France (pronounced /ˈfrænts/ frantss or /ˈfrɑːnts/ frahnts; French pronunciation (help·info): [fʁɑ̃s]), officially the French Republic (French: République française, pronounced: [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a state in Western Europe with several of its overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian,, in 1826. The omnibus was introduced to London London is a leading global city being the world's largest financial centre alongside New York City, and has the largest city GDP in Europe. Central London is home to the headquarters of most of the UK's top 100 listed companies and more than 100 of Europe's 500 largest. London's influence in politics, finance, education, entertainment, media, in July 1829.^[5]

Mode

Airline

See also: Airline and Bush airplane

An airline provides scheduled service with aircraft between airports. Air travel has high up to very high speeds, but incurs large waiting times prior and after travel, and is therefore often only feasible over longer distances or in areas where lack of ground infrastructure makes other modes of transport impossible. Bush airlines work more similar to bus stops; an aircraft waits for passengers and takes off when the aircraft is full.

Bus and coach

Transmilenio buses in Bogotá, Colombia Main article: Public transport bus service Main article: Coach (scheduled transport)

Bus services use buses on conventional roads to carrying numerous passengers on shorter journeys. Buses operate with low capacity (i.e. compared with trams or trains), and can operate on conventional roads, with relatively inexpensive bus stops to serve passengers. Therefore buses are commonly used in smaller cities and towns, in rural areas as well for shuttle services supplementing in large cities. Bus rapid transit is an ambiguous term used for buses operating on dedicated right-of-way, much like a light rail. Trolleybuses are electric buses that employ overhead wires to get power for traction. Online_Electric_Vehicles are buses that run on a conventional battery, but are recharged frequently at certain points via underground wires.^[6]

Coach services use coaches (long-distance buses) for suburb-to-CBD or longer distance transportation. The vehicle are normally equipped with more comfortable seating, a separate luggage compartment, video and possibly also a toilet. They have higher standards than city buses, but a limited stopping pattern.

Trains

Left: Tokyo's Yamanote Line, one of the world's busiest commuter rail lines. Right: Chicago Transit Authority control tower 18 guides elevated Chicago 'L' northbound Purple and Brown lines intersecting with westbound Pink and Green lines and the looping Orange line above the Wells and Lake street intersection in the loop. Main article: Passenger rail transport

Passenger rail transport is the conveyance of passengers by means of wheeled vehicles specially designed to run on railways. Trains allow high capacity on short or long distance, but require track infrastructure and stations to be built. Urban rail transit consists of trams, light rail, rapid transit, people movers, commuter rail and funiculars.

Commuter, intercity, and high-speed rail

Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus in Mumbai, India

Commuter rail is part of an urban area's public transport; it provides faster services to outer suburbs and neighboring towns and villages. Trains stop at all stations, that are located to serve a smaller suburban or town center. The stations often being combined with shuttle bus or park and ride systems at each station. Frequency may be up to several times per hour, and commuter rail systems may either be part of the national railway, or operated by local transit agencies.

Intercity rail is long-haul passenger services that connect multiple urban areas. They have few stops, and aim at high average speeds, typically only making one of a few stops per city. These services may also be international.

High-speed rail is passenger trains operating significantly faster than conventional rail—typically defined as at least 200 kilometres per hour (120 mph). The most predominant systems have been built in Europe and Japan, and compared with air travel, offer long-distance rail journeys as quick as air services, have lower prices to compete more effectively and uses electricity instead of combustion.^[7]

Trams and light rail

Main article: Tram TTC Streetcar in Toronto exiting Neville Park Loop

Trams are railborne vehicles that run in city streets or dedicated tracks. They have higher capacity than buses, but must follow dedicated infrastructure with rails and wires either above or below the track, limiting their flexibility.

Light rail is a modern development (and use) of the tram, with dedicated right-of-way not shared with other traffic, step-free access and increased speed. Light rail lines are, thus, essentially modernized interurbans.

Metro/Underground/Rapid transit

The Vancouver Skytrain is the longest automated rapid transit system in the world. It also includes the longest mass transit-only bridge, the Skybridge. Main article: Rapid transit

A rapid transit Metro/Underground/Elevated railway operates in an urban area with high capacity and frequency, and grade separation from other traffic.^[8][9]

Systems are able to transport large amounts of people quickly over short distances with little land use. Variations of rapid transit include people movers, small-scale light metro and the commuter rail hybrid S-Bahn. More than 160 cities have rapid transit systems, totalling more than 8,000 km (4,971 mi) of track and 7,000 stations. Twenty-five cities have systems under construction.

Personal rapid transit

A vehicle on WVU's Morgantown Personal Rapid Transit. Main article: Personal rapid transit

Personal rapid transit is an automated cab service that runs on rails or a guideway. This is an uncommon mode of transportation (excluding elevators) due to the complexity of automation. A fully implemented system might provide most of the convenience of individual automobiles with the efficiency of public transit. The crucial innovation is that the automated vehicles carry just a few passengers, turn off the guideway to pick up passengers (permitting other PRT vehicles to continue at full speed), and drop them off to the location of their choice (rather than at a stop). Conventional transit simulations show that PRT might attract many auto users in problematic medium density urban areas. A number of experimental systems are in progress. One might compare personal rapid transit to the more labor-intensive taxi or paratransit modes of transportation, or to the (by now automated) elevators common in many publicly accessible areas.

Ferry

Main article: Ferry

A ferry is a boat or ship, used to carry (or ferry) passengers, and sometimes their vehicles, across a body of water. A foot-passenger ferry with many stops is sometimes called a water bus. Ferries form a part of the public transport systems of many waterside cities and islands, allowing direct transit between points at a capital cost much lower than bridges or tunnels, though at a lower speed. Ship connections of much larger distances (such as over long distances in water bodies like the Mediterranean Sea) may also be called ferry services.

Operation

Bus ride through Downtown Seattle (time-lapse)

Infrastructure

All public transport runs on infrastructure, either on roads, rail, airways or seaways; all consists of interchanges and way. The infrastructure can be shared with other modes of transport, freight and private transport, or it can be dedicated to public transport. The latter is especially true in cases where there are capacity problems for private transport. Investments in infrastructure are high, and make up a substantial part of the total costs in systems that are expanding. Once built, the infrastructure will further require operating and maintenance costs, adding to the total costs of public transport. Sometimes governments subsidize infrastructure by providing it free of charge, just like is common with roads for automobiles.

Interchanges

An ACTION steer-tag bus at Woden Bus Interchange in Canberra, Australia Main articles: Transport hub and Intermodal passenger transport

Interchanges are locations where passengers can switch mode. Most interchanges are predominantly for passenger to change from being pedestrians to passengers (such as a bus stop), while each system will have a few hubs that allow passengers to change between vehicles. This may be between vehicles of the same mode (like a bus interchange), or it can be between local and intercity transport (such as at a central station or airport). Other interchange facilities include car parks and bicycle parking.

Schedules

Main article: Public transport timetable

All public transport must either operate after a predefined schedule, or operate at a sufficient frequency that travelers do not need to use a schedule to correspond with the services. Operators will publish timetables, often supplemented with maps and fare schemes to help travelers coordinate their travel. Public transport route planner online, sometimes combined with pre-sold tickets, help make planning task more user-friendly. To further aid travelers, operators often run at fixed times of the hour, so passengers only need to memorize the minutes past the hour the service leaves, and can apply that to any hour of the day.

Coordination between services at intersections is important to reduce the total travel time for passengers. This can be done by coordinating shuttle services with main routes, or by creating a fixed time (for instance twice per hour) when all bus and rail routes meet at a station and exchange passengers.

Peak and base period

Peak:

• A.m. peak period is the period of time in the morning when additional services are provided to handle higher passenger volumes. The period begins when normal, scheduled headways are reduced and ends when headways return to normal.
• P.m. peak period is the period in the afternoon or evening when additional services are provided to handle higher passenger volumes. The period begins when normal headways are reduced and ends when headways are returned to norma

Midday period is the period of time between the end of the a.m. peak and the beginning of the p.m. peak

Peak/base ratio is the number of vehicles operated in passenger service during the peak period divided by the number operated during the base period

Financing

The main sources of financing are ticket revenue, government subsidies and advertisement. The percentage of revenue from passenger charges is known as the farebox recovery ratio. A limited amount of income may come from land development and rental income from stores and vendors, parking fees, and leasing tunnels and rights-of-way to carry fiber optic communication lines.

Fare and ticketing

A contactless ticket validator used in Oslo, Norway

Most—but not all—public transport required the purchase of a ticket to generate revenue for the operators. Tickets may either be bought in advance, at the time of the ride, or the carrier may allow both methods. Passengers may be issued with a paper ticket, metal or plastic token, or an electronic card (smart card, contactless smart card). Sometimes a ticket has to be validated, e.g. a paper ticket that has to be stamped, or an electronic ticket that has to be checked in.

Tickets may be valid for a single (or return) trip, or valid within a certain area for a period of time. The fare is based on the travel class, either as a function of the traveled distance, or based on a zone pricing.

The tickets may have to be shown or checked automatically at the station platform or when boarding, or during the ride by a conductor. Operators may choose to control all riders, allowing sale of the ticket at the time of ride. Alternatively, a proof-of-payment system allows riders to enter the vehicles without showing the ticket, but riders may or may not be controlled by a ticket controller; if the rider fails to show proof of payment, the operator may fine the rider at the magnitude of the fare.

Multi-use tickets allow travel more than once. In addition to return tickets, this includes period cards allowing travel within a certain area (for instance month cards), or during a given number of days that can be chosen within a longer period of time (for instance eight days within a month). Passes aimed at tourists, allowing free or discounted entry at many tourist attractions, typically include zero-fare public transport within the city. Period tickets may be for a particular route (in both directions), or for a whole network. A free travel pass allowing free and unlimited travel within a system is sometimes granted to particular social sectors, for example students, elderly, children, employees (job ticket) and the physical or mentally disabled.

Zero-fare public transport services are funded in full by means other than collecting a fare from passengers, normally through heavy subsidy or commercial sponsorship by businesses. Several mid-size European cities and many smaller towns around the world have converted their entire bus networks to zero-fare. Local zero-fare shuttles or inner-city loops are far more common than city-wide systems. There are also zero-fare airport circulators and university transportation systems.

Subsidies

Main article: Subsidy

This article may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (December 2008)

Governments, of any variety, may opt to subsidize public transport, for social, environmental or economical reasons. Key motivations are the need to provide transport to people those who cannot afford or are physically or legally incapable of using an automobile,^[10] and to reduce congestion, land use and emissions of local air pollution and greenhouse gases. Other motives may be related to promote business and economic growth, or urban renewal in formerly deprived areas of the city. Some systems are owned and operated by a government agency; other transportation services may be commercial, but receive greater benefits from the government compared to a normal company.

Subsidies may take the form of direct payments to financially unprofitable services, but also indirect subsidies are used. This may include allowing use of state-owned infrastructure without payment or for less than cost-price (may apply for railways and roads), to stimulate public transport's economic competitiveness over private transport, that normally also has free infrastructure (subsidized through such things as gas taxes). Other subsidies include tax advantages (for instance aviation fuel is typically not taxed), bailouts if companies that are likely to collapse (often applied to airlines) and reduction of competition through licensing schemes (often applied to taxis and airlines). Private transport is normally subsidized indirectly through free roads (paid for largely by gas taxes^[11][12]) and infrastructure^[11], as well as incentives to build car factories^[13] and, on occasion, directly via bailouts of automakers^[14][15].

Land development schemes may be initialized, where operators are given the rights to use lands near stations, depots, or tracks for property development. For instance, in Hong Kong, MTR Corporation Limited and KCR Corporation generate profits from land development to cover the partial cost of construction, but not operation, of the urban rail systems.

Some government officials^[who?] believe^{[citation needed]} that use of taxpayer capital to fund mass transit will ultimately save taxpayer money in other ways, and therefore, state-funded mass transit is a benefit to the taxpayer. (Such a belief has been backed up by research^[16], although the measurement of benefits and costs is a complex and controversial issue^[17].) A lack of mass transit results in more traffic (perhaps^{[18][19][20][21]}, although right-wing think tanks disagree ^[22][23]), pollution^[24][25][26], and road construction^[27] to accommodate more vehicles, all costly to taxpayers^[28]; providing mass transit will therefore alleviate these costs^[29].

Safety and security

Main article: Public transport security

Expansion of public transportation systems is often opposed (particularly in North America) by critics who see them as vehicles for violent criminals and homeless persons to expand into new areas (to which they would otherwise have to walk).^[30] According to the Transportation Research Board, "[v]iolent crime is perceived as pandemic .... Personal security affects many peoples' [sic] decisions to use public transportation."^[31] Despite the occasional highly publicized incident, the vast majority of modern public transport systems are well designed and patrolled and generally have low crime rates. Many systems are monitored by CCTV, mirrors, or patrol.^[32]

Nevertheless, some systems attract vagrants who use the stations or trains as sleeping shelters, though most operators have practices that discourage this.^[32]

Though public transit accidents attract far more publicity than car wrecks, public transport is much safer, due to far lower accident rates. Annually, public transit prevents 200,000 deaths, injuries, and accidents had equivalent trips been made by car. The National Safety Council estimates riding the bus as over 170 times safer than private car.^[33]

Impact

Main article: Sustainable transportation

Environmental

A 2002 study by the Brookings Institution and the American Enterprise Institute found that public transportation in the U.S uses approximately half the fuel required by cars, SUV's and light trucks. In addition, the study noted that "private vehicles emit about 95 percent more carbon monoxide, 92 percent more volatile organic compounds and about twice as much carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide than public vehicles for every passenger mile traveled".^[34]

A controversial 2004 study from Lancaster University concluded that a family of four in a modern car traveling from London to Edinburgh would be more efficient than traveling in a diesel-powered UK trains.^[35] The study showed that trains had failed to keep up with the advances that the automotive and aviation industries had made in improved fuel efficiency. A representative from Modern Railways magazine said^{[citation needed]}: Studies have shown that there is a strong inverse correlation between urban population density and energy consumption per capita, and that public transport could play a key role in increasing urban population densities, and thus reduce travel distances and fossil fuel consumption.^[36]

Going Green

Public Transportation has been a key aspect of the Green initiative. The idea of going Green, which basically entails commissioning more eco-friendly systems, is essentially new. Gases emitted by automobiles have been cited as major contributors to the issues addressed in green initiatives. A study conducted in Milan, Italy in 2004 during and after a transportation strike serves to illustrate the impact that mass transportation has on the environment. Air samples were taken between January 2 and January 9, and then tested for Methane, Carbon Monoxide, non-methane Hydrocarbons (NMHCs), and other gases identified as harmful to the environment. The figure below is a computer simulation showing the results of the study “with January 2nd showing the lowest concentrations as a result of decreased activity in the city during the holiday season. January 9th showed the highest NMHC concentrations because of increased vehicular activity in the city due to a public transportation strike.” ^[37]

Public Transportation allows for cars to be removed from the road. This lowers gas emissions and traffic congestions. Influenced by the previous, the state of New Jersey released Getting to Work: Reconnecting Jobs with Transit ^[38]. This initiative, as suggested by its title, attempts to relocate new jobs into areas with higher public transportation accessibility. The initiative cites the use of public transportation as being a means of reducing traffic congestion, providing an economic boost to the areas of job relocation, and most importantly, contributing to a green environment by reducing Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emissions.

CO2 and Energy Impact

Using Public transportation can result in a reduction of an individual’s carbon footprint. A single person, 20-mile round trip by car can be replaced using public transportation and result in a net CO2 emissions reduction of 4,800 lbs/year.^[39] Using public transportation saves CO2 emissions in more ways than simply travel as public transportation can help to alleviate traffic congestion as well as promote more efficient land use. When all three of these are considered, it is estimated that 37 million metric tones of CO2 will be saved annually.^[39] Another study claims that using public transit instead of private in the U.S. in 2005 would have reduced CO2 emissions by 3.9 million metric tones and that the resulting traffic congestion reduction accounts for an additional 3.0 million metric tons of CO2 saved.^[40] This is a total savings of about 6.9 million metric tones per year given the 2005 values.

In order to compare energy impact of public transportation to private transportation, the amount of energy per passenger mile must be calculated. The reason that comparing the energy expenditure per person is necessary is to normalize the data for easy comparison. Here, the units are in per 100 p-km (read as person kilometer or passenger kilometer). In terms of energy consumption, public transportation is better than individual transport in a personal vehicle.^[41] In England, bus and rail are popular methods of public transportation, especially London. Rail provides rapid movement into and out of the city of London while busing helps to provide transport within the city itself. As of 2006-2007, the total energy cost of London’s trains was 15 kWh per 100 p-km, about 5 times better than a personal car.^[42] For busing in London, it was 32 kWh per 100 p-km, or about 2.5 times that of a personal car.^[42] This includes lighting, depots, inefficiencies due to capacity (i.e., the train or bus may not be operating at full capacity at all times), and other inefficiencies. Efficiencies of transport in Japan in 1999 were 68 kWh per 100 p-km for a personal car, 19 kWh per 100 p-km for a bus, 6 kWh per 100 p-km for rail, 51 kWh per 100 p-km for air, and 57 kWh per 100 p-km for sea.^[42] These numbers from either country can be used in energy comparison calculations and/or life cycle assessment calculations.

Public transportation also provides an arena to test environmentally friendly fuel alternatives, such as hydrogen-powered vehicles. Swapping out materials to create lighter public transportation vehicles with the same or better performance will increase environmental friendliness of public transportation vehicles while maintaining current standards or improving them. Informing the public about the positive environmental effects of using public transportation in addition to pointing out the potential economic benefit is an important first step towards making a difference.

Area

Traffic jam in São Paulo

Urban space is a precious commodity and public transport consumes it more efficiently than a car dominant society, allowing cities to be built more compactly than if they were dependent on automobile transport.^[43] If public transport planning is at the core of urban planning, it will also force cities to be built more compactly to create efficient feeds into the stations and stops of transport.^[44] This will at the same time allow the creation of centers around the hubs, serving passengers' need for their daily commercial needs and public services. This approach significantly reduces urban sprawl.

Social

An important social role played by public transport is to ensure that all members of society are able to travel, not just those with a driving license and access to an automobile—which include groups such as the young, the old, the poor, those with medical conditions, and people banned from driving. Automobile dependency is a name given by policy makers to places where the those without access to a private vehicle do not have access to independent mobility.^[45]

Above that, public transportation opens to its users the possibility of meeting other people, as no concentration is diverted from interacting with fellow-travelers due to any steering activities. Adding to the above-said, public transport becomes a location of inter-social encounters across all boundaries of social, ethnic and other types of affiliation.

Economic

Public transport allows transport at an economy of scale not available through private transport. Through stimulating public transport it is possible to reduce the total transport cost for the public. Time costs can also be reduced as cars removed from the road through public transit options translate to less congestion and faster speeds for remaining motorists. Transit-oriented development can both improve the usefulness and efficiency of the public transit system as well as result in increased business for commercial developments.

Well-designed transit systems can have a positive effect on real estate prices. The Hong Kong metro MTR generates a profit by redeveloping land around its stations. Much public opposition to new transit construction can be based on the concern about the impact on neighborhoods of this new economic development. Few localities have the ability to seize and reassign development rights to a private transit operator, as Hong Kong has done. Increased land desirability has resulted around stations in places such as Washington, D.C..

Investment in public transport also stimulates the economy locally, with between $4 and $9 of economic activity resulting from every dollar spent.^[1] Many businesses rely on access to a transit system, in particular in cities and countries where access to cars is less widespread, businesses which require large amounts of people going to a same place may not be able to accommodate a large number of cars (concert venues, sport stadia, airports, exhibitions centres,...), or businesses where people are not able to use a car (bars, hospitals, or industries in the tourism sector whose customers may not have their cars).

Transit systems also have an effect on derivated businesses: commercial websites have been founded, such as Hopstop.com, that give directions through mass transit systems; in some cities, such as London, products themed on the local transport system are a popular tourist souvenir.

Conversely, the existence of a transit system can lower land values, either through influence on a region's demographics and crime rate (actual or perceived) or simply through the ambient noise and other discomforts the system creates.

Regulations

Food and drink

Longer distance public transport sometimes sell food and drink on board, and/or have a dedicated buffet car and/or dining car. However, some urban transport systems forbid the consumption of food, drink, or even chewing gum when riding on public transport. Sometimes only types of food are forbidden with more risk of making the vehicles dirty, e.g. ice creams and French fries, and sometimes potato chips.^{[citation needed]}

Some systems prohibit carrying open food or beverage containers, even if the food or beverage is not being consumed during the ride.

Smoking

In the United States, Canada, most of the European Union, Australia, and New Zealand, smoking is prohibited in all or some parts of most public transportation systems due to safety and health issues. Generally smoking is not allowed on buses and trains, while rules concerning stations and waiting platforms differ from system to system. The situation in other countries varies widely.

Noise

Many mass transit systems prohibit the use of audio devices, such as radios, CD players, and MP3 players unless used with an earphone through which only the user can hear the device.

Some mass transit systems have restricted the use of mobile phones. Long distance train services, such as the Amtrak system in the US, have "quiet cars" where mobile phone usage is prohibited.

Some systems prohibit passengers from engaging in conversation with the operator. Others require that passengers who engage in any conversation must keep the noise level low enough that it not be audible to other passengers.

Some systems have regulations on the use of profanity. In the United States, this has been challenged as a free speech issue.

Banned items

Certain items considered to be problematic are prohibited or regulated on many mass transit systems. These include firearms and other weapons (unless licensed to carry), explosives, flammable items, or hazardous chemicals and substances.

Many systems prohibit live animals, but allow those that are in carrying cases or other closed containers. Additionally, service animals for the blind or disabled are permitted.

Some systems prohibit items of a large size that may take up a lot of space, such as bicycles. But more systems in recent years have been permitting passengers to bring bikes.

In Sydney, it is illegal to carry spray cans or permanent markers on public transport, as they can be used to vandalise the vehicles and stations. This rule also applies to sharp instruments that could damage the train, such as screwdrivers that could be used to make "scratchitti", a form of vandalism where tags are carved into a window.^{[citation needed]}

Other regulations

Many systems have regulations against behavior deemed to be unruly or otherwise disturbing to other passengers. In such cases, it is usually at the discretion of the operator, police officers, or other transit employees to determine what behaviors fit this description.

Some systems have regulations against photography or videography of the system's vehicles, stations, or other property. Those seen holding a mobile phone in a manner consistent with photography are considered to be suspicious for breaking this rule.

Sleeping

In the era when long distance trips took several days, sleeping accommodations were an essential part of transportation. (On land, the lodging involved was often part of the infrastructure: the inn or ryokan, which didn't move, sheltered travelers. People also slept on ships at sea.) Today, most airlines, inter-city trains and coaches offer reclining seats and many provide pillows and blankets for overnight travelers. Better sleeping arrangements are commonly offered for a premium fare and include sleeping cars on overnight trains, larger private cabins on ships and airplane seats that convert into beds. Budget-conscious tourists sometimes plan their trips using overnight train or bus trips in lieu of paying for a hotel. The ability to get additional sleep on the way to work is attractive to many commuters using public transport.

Because night trains or coaches can be cheaper than motels, homeless persons often use these as overnight shelters, as with the famous Line 22 ("Hotel 22") in Silicon Valley.^[46][47] Specifically, a local transit route with a long overnight segment and which accepts inexpensive multi-use passes will acquire a reputation as a "moving hotel" for people with limited funds. Most transportation agencies actively discourage this. For this and other reasons passengers are often required to exit the vehicle at the end of the line; they can board again in the same or another vehicle, after some waiting. Also, even a low fare often deters the poorest individuals, including homeless people.

See also

	Transport portal
	Sustainable development portal

• Air quality control region
• Catchment area
• International Association of Public Transport
• Load factor (transportation)
• Public transport bus service
• Public transport route planner
• Public transport timetable
• Ridership
• Seamless transportation network
• Sustainable transport
• Transit police
• Transport in present-day nations and states
• Transit district

References

Notes

1. ^ ^{a b} http://www.publictransportation.org/aboutus/default.asp
2. ^ In the New World, beasts of burden were generally not as large as those in the Old, although the Incas did use llamas as pack animals. See Pre Columbian Wheels.
3. ^ Needham, Joseph. (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. ISBN 0-521-07060-0
4. ^ web-page (in French) at http://www.herodote.net/histoire/evenement.php?jour=18260810. Retrieved 13 June 2008.
5. ^ The London Omnibus
6. ^ KAIST Online Electric Vehicle
7. ^ http://www.techthefuture.com/mobility/high-speed-train-vs-airplane/
8. ^ "Rapid transit". Merriam-Webster. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/rapid%20transit. Retrieved 2008-02-27. ; "Metro". International Association of Public Transport. http://www.uitp.org/Public-Transport/metro/index.cfm. Retrieved 2008-02-27.
9. ^ "Glossary of Transit Terminology". American Public Transportation Association. http://www.apta.com/research/info/online/glossary.cfm. Retrieved 2008-02-27.
10. ^ http://www.heritage.org/Research/UrbanIssues/bg1721.cfm
11. ^ ^{a b} http://pubsindex.trb.org/view.aspx?id=186860
12. ^ http://trb.metapress.com/content/e8mg457m42257276/fulltext.pdf
13. ^ http://www.voxeu.org/index.php?q=node/3023
14. ^ http://blogs.suntimes.com/sweet/2009/06/general_motors_bailout_over_vi.html
15. ^ http://marketplace.publicradio.org/display/web/2008/12/04/auto_bailout_history/
16. ^ For examples, see http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_49.pdf and http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_34.pdf
17. ^ http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d05423sp.pdf
18. ^ http://www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm96.htm
19. ^ http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/movingwashington/
20. ^ http://www.transportation1.org/tif2report/transit.html
21. ^ http://www.rand.org/pubs/research_briefs/RB9385/index1.html
22. ^ http://www.washingtonpolicy.org/Centers/transportation/policynote/04_otoole_railtransit.html
23. ^ http://www.cato.org/testimony/ct-ro-20090707.html
24. ^ http://www.thestar.com/article/424413
25. ^ http://www.cdc.gov/healthyplaces/healthtopics/airpollution.htm
26. ^ http://www.vtpi.org/tca/tca0510.pdf
27. ^ http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/programadmin/contracts/price.cfm
28. ^ http://www.vtpi.org/tca/
29. ^ http://www.vtpi.org/tca/tca11.pdf
30. ^ Achs, Nicole. "Roadblocks to public transit: for reasons ranging from prejudice to pragmatism, many suburbanites are fighting tooth and nail to keep mass transit out of their neighborhoods." American City & County 106, no. 1 (January 1991): 28-32.
31. ^ Transit Cooperative Research Program, TCRP Synthesis 21: Improving Transit Security (Washington, D.C.: Transportation Research Board, 1997), 3.
32. ^ ^{a b} Needle et. al., 1997: 10–13
33. ^ http://www.publictransportation.org/reports/asp/pub_benefits.asp
34. ^ Lyndsey Layton, "Study Lists Mass Transit Benefits", The Washington Post, July 17, 2002, Page B05
35. ^ Paul Marston (2004-06-21). "Cars are more fuel-efficient than trains, claims study". The Daily Telegraph (Telegraph Media Group). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1465041/Cars-are-more-fuel-efficient-than-trains-claims-study.html. Retrieved 2009-03-18.
36. ^ Newman, 1999
37. ^ Barletta, Barbara, Donald Dabdub, Donald R. Blake, F. Sherwood Rowand, Paul Nissenson, and Simone Meinardi. "Influence of the public transportation system on the air quality of a major urban center. A case study: Milan, Italy". Atmospheric Environment. Nov. 2008.Science Direct. 7 Dec. 2009 <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VH3-4T4XRGC-2&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1130677758&_rerunOrigin=google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=1f2126719e18c1a29f6ee6553554f321#bcor1>
38. ^ New Jersey Future. "Getting to Work: Reconnecting Jobs with Transit." New Jersey Future.1 Nov. 2008.New Jersey Environmental Digital Library. 7 Dec. 2009 <http://njedl.rutgers.edu/njdlib/details.cfm?RECORD_ID=5828&formKeyword=public%20transportation&formTitle=&formOriginator=&formThemekey=&formPlacekey=&formDoctype=&order=PublicationDate%20DESC&quicksearch=yes&results_next=0>
39. ^ ^{a b} Public Transportation Reduces Greenhouse Gases and Conserves Energy. www.publictransportation.org/reports/documents/greenhouse_brochure.pdf
40. ^ Todd Davis; Monica Hale. “Public Transportation’s Contribution to U.S. Greenhouse Gas Reduction. Sept. 2007. p. 25
41. ^ David JC MacKay. “Sustainable Energy Without the Hot Air.” 2009. p. 120 www.withouthotair.com
42. ^ ^{a b c} David JC MacKay. “Sustainable Energy Without the Hot Air.” 2009. p. 121 www.withouthotair.com
43. ^ UITP - Public transport alleviates congestion
44. ^ UITP Advocacy
45. ^ Litman, T. (1999). The Costs of Automobile Dependency and the Benefits of Balanced Transport. Victoria Public Policy Institute.
46. ^ Jane Lii, "Refuge On The Road: Homeless Find Nighttime Haven — The No. 22 Bus From Menlo Park To San Jose", San Jose Mercury News, 9 January 2000, 1A.
47. ^ Cathy Newman, "Silicon Valley: Inside the Dream Incubator", National Geographic 200, no. 6 (December 2001): 52-76.

Bibliography

• Needle, Jerome A.; Transportation Security Board and Cobb, Renée M. (1997). Improving Transit Security. Transportation Security Board. ISBN 0309060133. http://books.google.com/?id=WfBt0kzz524C.
• Newman, Peter; Jeffrey R. Kenworthy (1999). Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence. Island Press. ISBN 1559636602.
• Ovenden, Mark (2007). Transit Maps of the World. London: Penguin. pp. 7. ISBN 0-14-311265-5.
• Hess, D. 2007. What is a clean bus? Object conflicts in the greening of urban transit. Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy 3(1):45-58. http://ejournal.nbii.org/archives/vol3iss1/0608-027.hess.html
• Valderrama, A. & Beltran, I. 2007.Diesel versus compressed natural gas in Transmilenio-Bogotá: innovation, precaution, and distribution of risk. Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy 3(1):59-67. http://ejournal.nbii.org/archives/vol3iss1/0608-025.valderrama.html

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